Tech landscape
Technologies Overview
A map of the most popular technologies in software development and how they fit together. Each box is an area of the craft, and the boxes inside it are its tools. Click the info icon next to any technology for a plain-English explanation.
- Area or category
- Closely related technologies
- legacyStill around, not for new projects
Software Development
Frontend Development
Everything that runs in the browser: what users see and click.
- HTML
HTML
The markup language of the web. It describes the structure of a page: headings, text, images, forms and links.
- CSS
CSS
The styling language of the web: colors, fonts, spacing, layout and animations, including adapting a page to phones and desktops.
- JavaScript
JavaScript
The programming language of the browser. It makes pages interactive: menus, forms, live updates and whole applications.
- HTML
- TypeScript
TypeScript
JavaScript with types. Catches many bugs before the code runs and makes large codebases easier to maintain. The default choice for serious projects today.
- AJAX
AJAX
A technique for loading data in the background without reloading the page, e.g. search suggestions or an infinite feed.
- SPA
SPA
Single-Page Application: the site loads once and then works like a desktop app, switching screens instantly without full page reloads.
- PWA
PWA
Progressive Web App: a website that can be installed on a phone or desktop, work offline and send push notifications, without an app store.
Frameworks & libraries
Building blocks for interactive interfaces.
- React
React
The most popular library for building user interfaces, created by Meta. Huge ecosystem and the largest pool of developers.
- Vue.js
Vue.js
A progressive UI framework known for a gentle learning curve and clean syntax. Popular in Europe and Asia.
- Angular
Angular
A full, opinionated framework from Google with everything built in. Common in large enterprise applications.
- Svelte
Svelte
A compiler-based framework that produces very small and fast code. Loved by developers, smaller ecosystem than React.
- jQuerylegacy
jQuerylegacy
The library that made JavaScript easy in the 2000s–2010s. Still on millions of sites, but modern browsers and frameworks have replaced it.
Styling
Tools that make CSS faster to write and easier to maintain.
- Tailwind CSS
Tailwind CSS
A utility-first CSS framework: styles are composed from small classes right in the markup. The most popular styling approach today.
- Sass / SCSS
Sass / SCSS
A CSS preprocessor that adds variables, nesting and reusable mixins. SCSS is its CSS-like syntax.
- LESSlegacy
LESSlegacy
A CSS preprocessor similar to Sass, popular with Bootstrap 3. Rarely chosen for new projects now.
- PostCSS
PostCSS
A tool that transforms CSS with plugins, e.g. adding browser prefixes automatically. Often runs behind the scenes.
UI frameworks
Ready-made components and grids.
- Bootstrap
Bootstrap
The classic set of ready-made components (buttons, forms, grids, modals). Quick to start, common in admin panels.
- Foundationlegacy
Foundationlegacy
A responsive front-end framework and an early Bootstrap competitor. Rarely used in new projects.
Build tools
Turn source code into optimized files the browser downloads.
- Vite
Vite
A modern build tool and dev server with near-instant reloads. The default for new React, Vue and Svelte projects.
- Webpack
Webpack
The long-time standard bundler. Very flexible and still behind many existing projects, though slower than newer tools.
- esbuild
esbuild
An extremely fast bundler written in Go; other tools such as Vite use it under the hood.
- Rollup
Rollup
A bundler that produces clean, small output. Popular for publishing libraries and used inside Vite.
- Babel
Babel
A compiler that converts modern JavaScript into code older browsers understand.
- Parcellegacy
Parcellegacy
A zero-configuration bundler. Easy to start with, but much less common than Vite today.
- Gulplegacy
Gulplegacy
A task runner for automating build steps (compiling styles, minifying files). Replaced by modern bundlers.
- Gruntlegacy
Gruntlegacy
An early JavaScript task runner, the predecessor of Gulp. Found only in older projects.
Full-stack Development
Frameworks that cover both sides: pages and server logic in one codebase.
PHP full-stack
Modern interfaces on top of a Laravel backend, without a separate frontend app.
- Inertia.js
Inertia.js
Lets a Laravel backend drive a React or Vue frontend directly: SPA experience with no separate API to build and maintain.
- Livewire
Livewire
Builds interactive Laravel interfaces in PHP and Blade, with little or no JavaScript.
JavaScript meta-frameworks
Built on top of a UI library and add routing, server rendering, APIs and SEO.
- Next.js
Next.js
The leading React framework by Vercel. Renders pages on the server for speed and SEO, and runs backend code (APIs, database access) in the same project. Used for sites and SaaS products.
- Nuxt
Nuxt
The Vue.js counterpart of Next.js: server rendering, routing, APIs and SEO for Vue applications.
- SvelteKit
SvelteKit
The official full-stack framework for Svelte: fast pages, server routes and very small bundles.
- React Router
React Router
Formerly Remix: a React framework focused on web standards, forms and fast data loading.
- Astro
Astro
A framework for content-heavy sites (blogs, marketing, docs) that ships almost no JavaScript, so pages load very fast.
- tRPC
tRPC
Connects a TypeScript frontend and backend with full type safety, without writing a separate API description.
Backend Development
The server side: business logic, data, integrations and security.
Languages
- PHP
PHP
Powers most of the web, including WordPress. Modern PHP with Laravel is a fast, cost-effective choice for web apps and SaaS.
- Node.js
Node.js
Runs JavaScript on the server, so one language covers frontend and backend. Great for real-time apps and APIs.
- Python
Python
A readable, versatile language. The leader in AI, machine learning and data analysis, also used for web backends.
- Java
Java
A mature language for large enterprise systems, banking and Android. Very stable, very verbose.
- C# / .NET
C# / .NET
Microsoft's platform for enterprise apps, web services and games (Unity). Strong in corporate environments.
- Go
Go
A simple, fast language from Google for high-load services, networking and cloud infrastructure (Docker and Kubernetes are written in Go).
- Ruby
Ruby
An expressive language made famous by Ruby on Rails. Popular with startups in the 2010s.
- Rust
Rust
A systems language with C-level speed and memory safety. Used where performance and reliability are critical.
Frameworks
Ready foundations for routing, databases, auth and queues.
- Laravel
Laravel
The most popular PHP framework. Elegant, batteries-included, very fast to build web apps and SaaS products.
- Symfony
Symfony
A robust PHP framework and set of components for large, long-lived applications. Laravel itself uses its components.
- Express
Express
The minimal, classic web framework for Node.js. Flexible, but you assemble the structure yourself.
- NestJS
NestJS
A structured Node.js framework in TypeScript, inspired by Angular. Good for large backends and teams.
- Django
Django
Python's batteries-included web framework with an automatic admin panel. Used by Instagram and many others.
- FastAPI
FastAPI
A modern, fast Python framework for APIs. Common choice for AI and machine-learning services.
- Spring
Spring
The dominant Java framework for enterprise applications and microservices.
- Ruby on Rails
Ruby on Rails
The framework that popularized rapid web development. GitHub and Shopify are built on it.
APIs & communication
How apps and services talk to each other.
- REST
REST
The most common style of web API: simple, predictable URLs and HTTP methods for reading and changing data.
- OpenAPI
OpenAPI
A standard way to describe a REST API, so documentation and client code can be generated automatically.
- GraphQL
GraphQL
An API query language from Meta: the client asks for exactly the data it needs in one request.
- WebSockets
WebSockets
A permanent two-way connection between browser and server for real-time features: chats, notifications, live dashboards.
- Message queues
Message queues
Services like RabbitMQ or Kafka pass tasks between systems reliably and process heavy work in the background.
Mobile Development
Apps for iOS and Android.
Native
Separate app per platform: best performance and platform feel.
- Swift
Swift
Apple's language for iOS, iPadOS and macOS apps.
- Kotlin
Kotlin
Google's recommended language for Android apps; a modern replacement for Java.
- Android SDK
Android SDK
Google's official tools and libraries for building Android apps.
Cross-platform
One codebase for both platforms: lower cost, faster delivery.
- React Native
React Native
Build iOS and Android apps with React and JavaScript; code can be shared with a web app.
- Flutter
Flutter
Google's toolkit for building apps for mobile, web and desktop from one codebase in the Dart language.
- Expo
Expo
A platform on top of React Native that simplifies building, updating and publishing apps.
- Capacitor
Capacitor
Wraps an existing web app into a native iOS and Android app with access to the camera, files and notifications.
Publishing
Where users download apps; each store reviews apps before release.
- App Store
App Store
Apple's store for iOS apps. Requires a paid developer account and passes a manual review before every release.
- Google Play
Google Play
Google's store for Android apps, with a faster and mostly automated review process.
Databases & Storage
Where the application keeps its data.
Relational (SQL)
Structured tables with strict rules: orders, users, payments.
- PostgreSQL
PostgreSQL
A powerful open-source database with advanced features. The default choice for new projects.
- MySQL
MySQL
The most widespread open-source database on the web, behind WordPress and countless PHP applications.
- MariaDB
MariaDB
A community fork of MySQL, compatible with it and common on Linux hosting.
- SQLite
SQLite
A tiny database stored in a single file. Built into phones, browsers and desktop apps.
NoSQL
Flexible formats for special workloads.
- MongoDB
MongoDB
A document database that stores flexible JSON-like records. Good when the data structure changes often.
- Redis
Redis
An in-memory store, extremely fast. Used for caching, sessions, queues and rate limiting.
- Elasticsearch
Elasticsearch
A search engine for full-text search, filters and log analysis over large amounts of data.
Backend-as-a-Service
Database, auth and storage as a ready hosted service.
- Supabase
Supabase
An open-source platform on PostgreSQL with authentication, file storage and an instant API. Popular for MVPs.
- Firebase
Firebase
Google's backend platform for mobile and web apps: real-time database, auth, hosting and push notifications.
DevOps & Cloud
Hosting, deployment and keeping the system running.
- Git
Git
The version control system: stores the full history of code changes and lets a team work on it in parallel.
- Linux
Linux
The operating system of almost every web server in the world.
- Nginx
Nginx
A fast web server and reverse proxy that sits in front of applications, serves files and handles HTTPS.
Containers & automation
- Docker
Docker
Packs an application with everything it needs into a container, so it runs the same on a laptop and on a server.
- Kubernetes
Kubernetes
Runs and scales many containers across many servers automatically. For large, high-load systems.
- CI/CD
CI/CD
Continuous integration and delivery: every change is tested and deployed automatically (e.g. GitHub Actions).
- Terraform
Terraform
Infrastructure as code: servers, databases and networks are described in files and created automatically.
Cloud & hosting
- AWS
AWS
Amazon Web Services, the largest cloud platform: hundreds of services from servers to AI.
- Google Cloud
Google Cloud
Google's cloud platform, strong in data analytics, Kubernetes and AI.
- Azure
Azure
Microsoft's cloud, the natural choice for companies built on Microsoft products.
- Vercel
Vercel
A hosting platform for frontend and Next.js apps: deploy on every push, global CDN, zero server management.
- Cloudflare
Cloudflare
A global network that makes sites faster and protects them from attacks; also runs code at the edge.
AI & LLM
Adding artificial intelligence to products.
Models
Large language models available through an API.
- Claude
Claude
Anthropic's family of models, strong at writing, analysis, coding and long documents.
- GPT
GPT
OpenAI's models behind ChatGPT, widely used through their API.
- Gemini
Gemini
Google's family of AI models, integrated with Google's products and cloud.
- Open-source models
Open-source models
Models like Llama, Mistral or Qwen that can run on your own servers, for privacy or cost. Hugging Face hosts thousands of them.
- Ollama
Ollama
A tool to run open-source models locally on a laptop or server with one command.
Techniques
Making models useful with your own data and tools.
- RAG
RAG
Retrieval-Augmented Generation: the AI first searches your documents, then answers based on them. The way to build a chatbot over company knowledge.
- Vector databases
Vector databases
Databases that search by meaning instead of exact words (Qdrant, pgvector, Pinecone). The core of RAG.
- AI agents
AI agents
AI that does not just answer, but performs multi-step tasks: calls APIs, fills forms, processes data.
- MCP
MCP
Model Context Protocol: an open standard for connecting AI assistants to your apps, data and tools.
- LangChain
LangChain
A popular framework for building LLM applications: chains of prompts, RAG pipelines and agents.
Testing & QA
Automated checks that catch bugs before users do.
- Unit tests
Unit tests
Small automated tests that check individual functions. Tools: PHPUnit for PHP, Jest or Vitest for JavaScript.
- Vitest
Vitest
A fast modern test runner for JavaScript and TypeScript projects, built on Vite.
- Jest
Jest
The long-time standard JavaScript testing framework, especially with React.
- End-to-end tests
End-to-end tests
Tests that click through the real application in a browser like a user would. Tools: Playwright, Cypress.
- Cypress
Cypress
An end-to-end testing tool with a visual runner that shows every step in the browser.
- Seleniumlegacy
Seleniumlegacy
The original browser automation tool. Still used in enterprise QA, but newer tools are faster to work with.
CMS & E-commerce
Ready platforms for content sites and online stores.
- WordPress
WordPress
The most popular CMS, powering over 40% of all websites. Huge choice of themes and plugins.
- WooCommerce
WooCommerce
The e-commerce plugin for WordPress: turns a WordPress site into a full online store.
- Shopify
Shopify
A hosted e-commerce platform: launch a store quickly without managing servers; paid monthly.
- OpenCart
OpenCart
A free open-source PHP platform for online stores. Lightweight and cheap to host, with many ready-made modules and themes.
- Drupal
Drupal
A powerful open-source CMS for complex content sites, popular with governments and universities.
- Joomla
Joomla
An open-source PHP CMS, long one of the most popular after WordPress. Flexible for corporate sites and portals.
Headless CMS
Content is edited in the CMS and delivered by API to any frontend.
- Strapi
Strapi
An open-source headless CMS you can host yourself, built on Node.js.
- Contentful
Contentful
A hosted headless CMS used by larger companies for multi-channel content.
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